Xianfeng Emperor

Xianfeng Emperor – Qing Dynasty

Yizhu, or the Xianfeng Emperor, was the 8th Qing Dynasty emperor and 7th to lead over Central China. He ruled from 1850 to 1861.

During his regime, the Qing Dynasty met numerous rebellions and wars. These included the Taiping Rebellion, Nian Rebellion, as well as the Second Opium War. The latter was also known as the Arrow War.

The Xianfeng Emperor was the last to have total executive ruling power in China. After his reign and death, the Qing empire was under Empress Dowager Cixi’s rule.

Yizhu’s Family and Early Years

In 1831, Yizhu was born at the Old Summer Palace, which was 8 kilometers northwest of the capital, Beijing. He belonged to the Aisin Goro clan of the Manchu and was the Daoguang Emperor’s fourth son.

His mother, the Noble Consort Quan, belonged to the Niohoru clan. In 1834, she was posthumously known as Empress Xiaoquancheng.

Yizhu was renowned for his ability in literature and administration. He surpassed most of his brothers, which his father found impressive. Therefore, the Daoguang Emperor chose him as the throne’s successor.

Succeeding the Throne

In 1850, Yizhu ascended to the throne at 19, making him a young emperor. He inherited a dynasty that was facing various internal and foreign challenges.

Upon his succession, Yizhu took “Xianfeng” as his reign title, which means “universal prosperity”. However, this name didn’t reflect the situation during his rule.

In reality, this period was the beginning of constant rebellions that nearly destroyed the Qing Dynasty in the following years.

The Taiping and Nian Rebellions

In December 1850, the Taiping Rebellion began. Hong Xiuquan, a syncretic Christian sect’s Hakka leader, defeated local forces that were dispatched to eliminate his followers.

Then, Hong proclaimed the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and the rebellion that reached several provinces immediately. The next year, the Nian Rebellion began in North China.

The people in the Nian movement were not like the Christian-influenced Taiping rebels. They lacked a detailed political program but became a serious threat to the capital since they had a cavalry-based army.

In these rebel movements, the Qing imperial forces suffered defeats repeatedly.

The Second Opium War

The British sought to extend their trading rights in China, which caused the Second Opium War to begin. This was the continuation of the First Opium War, which marked the beginning of unequal treaties.

The Treaty of Nanking

In 1858, the First Opium War ended due to the Treaty of Nanking. New ports were opened for Western trade, permitting foreign emissaries to reside in Beijing.

The Treaty of Aigun and Tianjin

In May 1858, the Treaty of Aigun was signed. This pact established a border between China and Russia. Only Russians and Chinese were permitted to navigate the rivers of Amur, Sungari, and Ussuri.

Later, the Treaty of Tianjin was signed. China permitted the British and French several concessions. These included the opening of additional ports in China and foreign travel within the capital.

Additionally, this pact gave the Christian missionaries freedom to move and enter the capital’s interior.

Constant Battles and Burning of the Palaces

After numerous battles on the coast near Tianjin, the Anglo-French forces attempted to negotiate with the Qing. However, the Xianfeng Emperor believed that the Chinese were superior and refused to agree to colonial demands.

The British proceeded to attack the Chinese forts upon noticing their resistance to foreign ambassadors residing in Beijing.

In June 1859, the French and British negotiated with Beijing to approve the treaties. However, their fleet was blocked at Dagu and was faced with heavy casualties since the Chinese declined the treaties.

By August, China’s Dagu forts were attacked and destroyed by the warships of the British and French. The foreign armies proceeded to Tianjin and captured Beijing.

By this time, the Qing Empire was already devastated. While the negotiations for the treaties were being held, the Xianfeng Emperor fled to the province of Jehol. He left his brother, Prince Gong, to deal with the negotiations.

The Qing Dynasty emperor was accompanied by his imperial entourage to conduct the annual imperial hunting expedition.

During this time, the Qing Dynasty emperor’s health worsened. His inability to rule resulted in the formation of two clashing factions in the court.

By October 1860, the Anglo-French troops looted the emperor’s palaces since these possessed a vast amount of artwork.

The foreign armies burned the emperor’s Summer Palace and the Old Summer Palace. The burning of palaces was the order of Lord Elgin, Great Britain’s colonial administrator, and diplomat.

The Beijing Convention

A few days after the palaces were burned, the Beijing Convention was held and signed. Prince Gong approved to observe the Treaty of Tianjin. The Treaty of Aigun was also ratified, granting Russia jurisdiction over other areas.

As a result, the Christians were granted full civil rights, and Tianjin was opened. The southern area of Kowloon was granted to the British.

Additionally, freedom of religion was granted in China. The Chinese paid France and Britain 8 million Taels each. Then, opium trade and import were legalized.